Executive Functions and Executive Function Skills: Behavioral, Motivational, or Lagging Skills

Overview: Nuts and Bolts of executive functions and the relationship between the brain, executive functions, executive function skills, behavior and motivation

Executive Functions

Russell Barkley, Thomas Brown, and the Harvard Center for Developing Child provide definitions that we find to be all-inclusive when lumped together. Some models for these definitions use words to describe the executive functions while other models use the same words to describe executive function skills. What is most important and the take-home message is that there is a brain-based component to executive functions and executive function skills and that impairments in executive functions result in challenges with executive function skills which result in disabilities that are neurobiologically and chemically based as opposed to a function of motivation or will power or effort; as a result rewards and consequences/incentivization alone will not result in any changes to these skills; only explicit instruction in skills with consistent support in the same way that we support other brain-based skills such as reading, writing, and math.

The prefrontal cortex/frontal cortex of the brain controls executive functions
The limbic system/amygdala in the brain controls/ is responsible for emotions
All kinds of things can impact these brain-based functions (neurotransmitters, sleep, exercise, nutrition, stress, age, etc.)
Need a balance and well developed frontal and prefrontal cortex to control the limbic system/amygdala and we also need self-regulation skills which are developed in the frontal and prefrontal cortex and are influenced by age, sleep, nutrition, mental state, stressors, and other mental health diagnoses.
Because ADHD and other learning disabilities impact executive function skills and these skills are controlled by the brain, it is often difficult to differentiate between other brain-based functions like motivation and effort but the approach required to impact executive function skills is significantly different than the approach for motivation and effort; many times, people with these invisible learning disabilities are motivated to do well and are willing to put in effort but develop learned helplessness, shame, self-disappointment, and even depression because they are consistently told they should be able to do better or just try harder or are lazy or need to be more motivated; and in fact, they need additional support and instruction in skills to do what they are beiing asked to do; it is not typically a matter of motivation, effort, or will-power

Russell Barkley’s model describes executive functions as the use of self-directed actions to choose goals, and to select, enact, and sustain actions across time toward those goals, usually in the context of others and often relying on social and cultural means. This is done for the maximization of one’s longer-term welfare as the person defines that to be.

Thomas Brown describes executive functions as the cognitive management system of the human brain. They continually work together, usually rapidly and unconsciously, to help each individual manage many tasks of daily life.

The Harvard Center for the Developing Child describes executive function and self-regulation skills as the mental processes that enable us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks successfully. Just as an air traffic control system at a busy airport safely manages the arrivals and departures of many aircraft on multiple runways, the brain needs this skill set to filter distractions, prioritize tasks, set and achieve goals, and control impulses.

There are multiple models to describe Executive Functions (Barkley, Brown, Harvard),

Barkley	Brown	Harvard Center for Developing Child
Self Awareness	Emotion	Self Control
Inhibition	Activation	Working Memory
Non-verbal Working Memory	Action	Mental Flexibility

Verbal Working Memory	Memory
Emotional Regulation	Focus
Motivation Regulation	Effort
Planning and Problem Solving

*** No matter the model, EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS work together and are responsible for EXECUTIVE FUNCTION SKILLS and SKILLS result in ACTION and need to be taught and learned***

Executive Function Skills include the following:

time management
planning,
prioritization,
organization,
task initiation,
follow through/task execution,
focus, attention,
working memory,
self-regulation, etc.

Differentiating between Behavior, Motivation, and Lagging Skills?

Kids do well if they can. Assume positive intent. Then Triage:

(Not all kids who won’t or don’t do certain things are missing skills or executive function skills, but if we assume positive intent, we can triage it.)

What is their motivation?
What is their ability?
How long have they been struggling, avoiding, etc?
Are they asking for help or communicating in some way that they want to do it but they can’t?

Is the skill something they know how to do? If they don’t know how to do it, how can we help them and support their skill development?
have to teach the skill just like we have to teach reading and math

Are rewards and consequences having an impact and changing behavior consistently or for the long term?

When kids don’t have skills in other areas, like reading, we don’t just tell them to try harder or that they are lazy or stupid; we teach them the skills

I’ll give you a cookie if you read this book - doesn’t work if you can’t read
You will go in timeout if you don’t do this math problem - doesn’t work if they can’t do the math

Why Is Differentiating between Lagging Skills and Motivation Important?

If the Lagging Skills aren’t Supported and Taught, the Following Occur:

Self-esteem and confidence are at stake;
Learned helplessness
Disengagement in education, life, etc.
Behavior problems ensue
Lack of potential realized
Underachievement
Depression and more

Resources:

How do Executive Function Skills Relate to an IEP/504?
Executive function skills are critical to success in life and college. They are the skills we use to plan, organize, manage our emotions, communicate effectively, remember things, follow through with things, do things and more. They are controlled and managed by our brains. Many times, learning disabilities and ADHD result in delayed or lagging executive function skills. When executive function skills are delayed or lagging, students can’t meet the expectations and demands of school and life. As a result, a student may need support for their executive function skills in order to learn, access their education and make effective academic progress. As a way of providing this support, a student can be evaluated for eligibility for a 504 plan or IEP that would provide support for the development of those skills.

That process requires that a team of parents and school personnel meet to discuss the student’s needs, progress, and skills and to determine whether or not a student is eligible for a 504 plan or an IEP. If the student is found to be eligible,the team would also decide what accommodations and/or specialized instruction and related services that the student needs. A student would receive accommodations only, without specialized instruction or related services, if they are found to be eligible for a 504. If they are found to be eligible for an IEP, they would receive specialized instruction along with accommodation and sometimes they would receive related services.

How do Services Differ Between High School and College?
There are two major differences in services between high school and college:

1) There are no IEPs in college. Colleges only offer accommodations for students through 504 plans. They do not offer special education services or related services, only accommodations so that students have equal access to everything to which other students without disabilities have access. Additionally, even if you have a 504 in high school, that plan will not go with you to college; you have to apply for eligibility for a 504 at the college itself and go through the process again.

2) In college, everything related to getting, receiving, and using accommodations is driven by the student. In high school it is driven more by the school. Additionally, the college does not typically provide any evaluations that might be required to determine eligibility. Those must be provided by the student and paid for by the student or their family. Also because the student is typically over age 18, the student is fully responsible for all communications, and parents do not have access to any college records, communications, etc. without the consent of the student. There is a law called FERPA (the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act) which prevents any information about a student in college from being shared with anyone, including family members without consent from the student.

When transitioning to college, if you have a learning disability, you can apply for a 504 and accommodations. You do this through the disability services office who will determine your eligibility for a 504 and identify the accommodations that you are eligible for and will receive. The 504 that you have in high school is many times useful to the disabilities services office in college, but a new 504 will be developed and it may not include all of the accommodations that you had in high school. Most often, you will also need to provide a neuropsychological evaluation to the disability services office to qualify. Typically, this is all done through email and you will be notified of any accommodations that you are eligible for through email.

At some colleges, the disabilities services office will send the accommodation letters directly to a student’s professors; however, some will share the letters with you and you are responsible for sharing them with your professors. Most require that you go through the process of requesting accommodations every semester. Because you have different professors each semester you must communicate the accommodations that you are eligible for at the start of every semester. On top of being responsible for that communication, you are also responsible for using them, and many times must ensure that you know the process for using them (for example, if you have an accommodation of taking a test in the decreased distraction environment, you may need to sign up for taking an exam in the disability services office up to two weeks ahead of the exam).

The bottom line is that if you want accommodations and a 504 in college, you have to advocate for yourself, take the initiative to make it happen, and follow through with every step of the process all the way through using them. You can get help but you have to seek and use the help available. This requires effort and attention on your part. In general there is a lot more independence, self-advocacy, communication, and responsibility required in college, not to mention time management

How does coaching ease this transition?
College is a time when executive function skills are critical. The responsibility for getting through the day, week and semester shifts to the student, including everything related to academics, daily routines, medications and health, meals, hygiene, getting help, and so forth. It can sometimes be very overwhelming for a student with lagging executive function skills. When coupled with FERPA and not living at home with a parent, a student can quickly become overwhelmed.

Coaching can help ease this transition by having someone who can help you navigate all of the new systems, including getting accommodations set up. A coach will not wait for you to initiate anything but instead will help you figure out everything that needs to be done, help you create routines, offer solutions, be a guide, help break things down into smaller more manageable parts, and provide some check-ins and accountability. In effect, a coach is a partner in problem-solving whatever challenges a student might have as they make the transition from being at home with support systems in place at home and at school to being responsible for everything themselves.

A coach can provide students with solutions or guide them to a place where they can find solutions. They can also be cheerleaders and encourage students to try new things and celebrate success. Effectively a coach can not only be someone who can be a guide as you transition and figure out the systems in college that you need and that can work for you, but a coach can help you learn to speak up for yourself and where to go when you need help; or they can help you stay accountable to yourself so that you follow through with what you said you would do. A coach wants to help you be successful in the goals that you have for yourself and has the tools to make the transition easier and help you achieve that success.

Written and compiled by Courtney Edman: Director or 2Empower Parents, Parent Coach, Executive Function Coach, 2e specialist, College Planning, Life Transition Planning (2022).